Lynne Milne is a Palynologist at the Department of Geography at the University of Western Australia.

Palynology - the study of fossil and modern pollen, spores, algal cysts and other microscopic plant bodies. It is a multi-disciplinary field with applications in forensic science, geology, geography, botany, entomology, zoology, archaeology, immunology, and environmental science. My current work includes the promotion and use of forensic palynology in Western Australia; the construction of a pollen database (textual and graphic) for a large collection of Australian and international pollen - to be used for forensic science, geography, and botany; and research on the comparison of fossil and modern pollen of the plant family Proteaceae (Petrophile, Banksias, Grevilleas). To understand why and how palynology is useful in so many different areas of science, I'll provide a little background information.

Figures 1-8. Examples of pollen from flowering plants. Scale bar = 10 µm.
Figure 9. Pollen from a cone-bearing plant (e.g. pine) Scale bar = 10 µm.
Note: There are 1000 µm (microns) in a mm.
Reference
Milne, L (1998) Forensic Palynology. Pollen and spores, Nature's Fingerprints of Plants.

Figures 10-16. A variety of surface patterns found in one family, Proteaceae, photographed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Fig. 10. Aperture of Beauprea pollen. Scale bar = 10 µm.
Figs 11-13. Surface of different species from the same genus, Petrophile. Scale bar = 1 µm
Figs 14-16. Different surface patterns of fossil (14,15) and modern (16) Proteaceae pollen. Scale bar = 1 µm
Note: There are 1000 µm (microns) in a mm.
Reference
Milne, L (1998) Forensic Palynology. Pollen and spores, Nature's Fingerprints of Plants.

Pollen carries the male gametes of flowering and cone-bearing plants, and spores are the asexual reproductive bodies of ferns, mosses, and fungi. Plants produce vast quantities of microscopic pollen and spores which they disperse with the help of animals, wind, or water. Although we can't see individual pollen grains with the naked eye, they occur on almost every surface in nature. They are also highly resistant to decay, being found in rocks many millions of years old, and also persisting in soil, dirt, and on/in other materials for many years (e.g. buildings, woven cloth, food, drugs, counterfeit money, on our clothes, in our hair, etc ... and up our noses!). Pollen and spores come in an infinite variety of shapes and have complex surface ornamentation. Each plant type has distinctive pollen that can be distinguished from pollen of other plants. For this reason pollen and spores are often called Nature's Fingerprints of Plants.

FORENSIC PALYNOLOGY is the use of pollen and spores to help solve crimes. It is often possible to be very specific about where a person or thing has been from the pollen types that occur together in a sample. Pollen can help destroy or prove alibis, link a suspect to the scene of a crime, or link something left at the crime scene to a suspect. It can also help to determine what country or state drugs, food, merchandise, and antiques among other things, have come from. Two of the cases (murder and rape) I have worked on are outlined below.

The major commercial application of palynology is in GEOLOGY. Geologists use it to date sediments to assist in petroleum, mining, and underground water exploration. In GEOGRAPHY, palynology is used to investigate vegetation and climatic changes. The study of the history/evolution of plants is common to BOTANY, GEOLOGY, and GEOGRAPHY. From faecal pellets and stomach contents we can study the diets of fossil and living animals and people (PALAEONTOLOGY, ENTOMOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE). The study of pollen in honey is called MELISSOPALYNOLOGY. In the Zoology Department at the University of Western Australia, a student is using palynology as one of the techniques to determine if the introduced honey bee is affecting the native bee population.

I became interested in palynology while completing an undergraduate degree in Geology. Before starting the degree I had been a high school teacher for 11 years and also travelled overseas a lot. I went back to University, initially for just one year, to increase my teaching credentials. During the Geology unit I realised I'd always been interested in it (most of my overseas photographs were of great rock formations!). Geology had never been a career option for me before because when I went to school girls were actively discouraged from doing physical sciences - so I thought I had no aptitude for it. Enrolling in Geology was a fortunate 'accident' - I needed another subject on the enrolment form. Geology was such fun that I never went back to teaching. Palynology was chosen for my Honours project because it was fascinating, and was also a good area of geology for a woman whose biological clock was ticking and wanted to start a family. If I was younger I may have chosen a more field oriented project.

In my first few years of palynology I concentrated on stratigraphic palynology (fossils), but later became interested in the comparison of modern and fossil pollen to help determine the history of plant groups. The work with modern pollen led to forensic work.

A science degree in either geology, botany, or geography, with Honours in palynology or a related area. This would enable a person to work under the supervision of, or in collaboration with, an experienced palynologist. A PhD is desirable if you are to conduct forensic cases on your own and appear as an expert witness in court. Similarly, it helps, but is not necessary, for work in the petroleum and mining industries, environmental studies, immunology etc.

How long did it take you to get the necessary qualifications?

An undergraduate degree with Honours generally takes four years, mine took five because it was interrupted. Many people do a PhD immediately after their undergraduate degree, which full-time takes about 4 years. I started my PhD after gaining seven years industry experience, and completed it over a period of eight years part-time as I had family commitments and also had to work part-time. At the University of Western Australia there is a Forensic Science Masters and Diploma Programme in which the application of palynology is taught as part of the core course, and can later be specialised in by taking an optional unit. This does not equip a student to be a palynologist, but provides an overview of how and when it can be used, the techniques employed, and the methods of collection. Completion of a Masters with an option in palynology would likely qualify a person to do a PhD in forensic palynology.

If working on a case, pollen is extracted from exhibits (washed or scraped from items, or taken off with tapelifts), control samples are collected, and if possible, the crime scene attended. The samples are then taken through various preparation procedures so that the detail of the pollen can be examined with microscopes. Some cases are quite easy and require only the comparison of assemblages in the control and forensic sample - others require a lot of research in the laboratory, with other scientists, the public, and police.

I am also building a database for pollen. This requires pollen collection trips to the herbarium and field sites, - and laboratory, microscopy, and computing work. I also liaise with police, conduct forensic research with other scientists, and work on the comparison of fossil and modern Proteaceae pollen to increase knowledge of ancient vegetation and evolutionary trends in the plant family Proteaceae (Banksia, Grevillea etc).

Laboratory, microscopy (light and electron), research, computing, problem solving.

Pollen is often very beautiful and it always has a story to tell. I enjoy the super sleuth aspects - working out past vegetation, patterns in evolution, and helping to solve crimes.

Finding something new, or solving a puzzle.

Writing scientific papers.

Geologist, archaeologist, geographer, plant taxonomist, environmental research scientist, immunology researcher...

Palynology has many applications so the work can be very varied and interesting. If one has their own microscope it is also possible to conduct much of the work at home, so it fits in well with having a family.

At times it is quite solitary.

It has helped to unravel the vegetation of south western Australia 40 million years ago, and contributed to the knowledge of the history of the plant family Proteaceae.

The forensic work has helped put a murderer and a rapist behind bars, and continuing work will provide evidence to help solve crimes ranging from murder to robbery, fraud, and the source of drugs.

Other work has helped in the exploration of oil and gas, underground water reserves, and mineral sand and oil shale deposits. A study on the dietary habits of a population of yellow-bellied gliders in northern Queensland contributed to an environmental 'all clear' for a large dam.

I hope to be part of a thriving centre for interdisciplinary palynology with emphasis on forensic and taxonomic palynology, and guiding students and graduates who will eventually work either in WA or other parts of Australia and the world.

If you wish to ask Lynne for additional information, you can email UniServe Science and we will contact Lynne for you. Make sure you include Lynne's name and occupation in the Subject line.

Lynne has published a book Grain of Truth: How Pollen Evidence Brought a Murderer to Justice on her studies and experiences as a palynologist.

The Garden of Good and Evil - Transcript of an interview with Lynne Milne on Australian Story

Elisabeth Truswell (Palynologist) - at Bright Sparcs

Crime and Clues - The Art and Science of Criminal Investigation especially their page on Forensic Palynology in the United States and Forensic Palynology: A New Way To Catch Crooks

Palynology at the University of Arizona.

Palynology web site of the month - from University of Arizona

Searchable Pollen Database - from University of Newcastle and Australasian Quaternary Association

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